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发帖数: 1184 | 1 从地中海沿岸的众多古文明到商，几乎都在200年内垮掉
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%95%86%E6%9C%9D
商朝又称殷、殷商[註 1]（约前17世纪—约前11世纪[註 2]）是中国第一个有直接的同
时期的文字记载的朝代，標誌中國進入了信史時代。商朝前期屡屡迁都，直至盘庚定都
于殷（今中国安阳市），及后的273年裡再沒有遷都，所以商朝又叫殷朝[1]。有时候也
称为殷商或者殷。商是中国历史上继夏朝之后的一个朝代，相对于夏具有更豐富的考古
發現。原夏之諸侯國商部落首领商汤率諸侯國於鳴條之戰滅夏朝後建立。经历了六百年
[2]时间，17代31王，末代君王帝辛於牧野之戰被周武王擊敗而亡。
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse
Evidence of destruction
Anatolia
Prior to the Bronze Age collapse, Anatolia (Asia Minor) was dominated by a
number of Indo-European peoples: Luwians, Hittites, Mitanni, and Mycenaean
Greeks, together with the Semitic Assyrians. From the 17th century BC, the
Mitanni formed a ruling class over the Hurrians, an ancient indigenous
Caucasian people who spoke a Hurro-Urartian language isolate. Similarly, the
Hittites absorbed the Hattians,[4] a people speaking a language which may
have been of the North Caucasian group.
Every Anatolian site that was important during the preceding Late Bronze Age
shows a destruction layer, and it appears that here civilization did not
recover to the level of the Indo-European Hittites for another thousand
years. Hattusas, the Hittite capital, was burned – probably by Kaskians,
possibly aided by the Phrygians – abandoned, and never reoccupied. Karao&#
287;lan was burned and the corpses left unburied. The Hittite Empire was
destroyed by the Indo-European speaking Phrygians and by the Semitic
speaking Aramaeans. Troy was destroyed at least twice, before being
abandoned until Roman times.
The Phrygians had arrived probably over the Bosphorus in the 13th century BC
, and laid waste to the Hittite Empire (already weakened by defeat at the
hands of Kaska[5]), before being checked by the Assyrians in the Early Iron
Age of the 9th century BC. Other groups of Indo-European warriors followed
into the region, most prominently the Armenians, and even later, by the
Cimmerians, and Scythians. The Semitic Arameans, Kartvelian speaking
Colchians, and Hurro-Urartuans also made an appearance in parts of the
region. Sites in Anatolia showing evidence of the collapse are:
Troy
Miletus
Hattusas[6]
Mersin
Tarhuntassa
Cyprus
The catastrophe separates Late Cypriot II (LCII) from the LCIII period, with
the sacking and burning of Enkomi, Kition, and Sinda, which may have
occurred twice before those sites were abandoned.[7] During the reign of the
Hittite king Tudhaliya IV (reigned ca. 1237–1209 BC), the island was
briefly invaded by the Hittites,[8] either to secure the copper resource or
as a way of preventing piracy. Shortly afterwards, the island was
reconquered by his son around 1200 BC. Some towns (Enkomi, Kition,
Palaeokastro and Sinda) show traces of destruction at the end of LC IIC.
Whether or not this is really an indication of a Mycenean invasion is
contested. Originally, two waves of destruction, ca. 1230 BC by the Sea
Peoples and ca. 1190 BC by Aegean refugees have been proposed.[9] The
smaller settlements of Ayios Dhimitrios and Kokkinokremnos, as well as a
number of other sites, were abandoned, but do not show traces of destruction
. Kokkinokremos was a short-lived settlement, where various caches concealed
by smiths have been found. That no one ever returned to reclaim the
treasures suggests that they were killed or enslaved. Recovery only occurred
in the Early Iron Age with Phoenician and Greek settlement. Sites in Cyprus
showing evidence of the collapse are:-
Palaeokastro
Kition
Sinda
Enkomi
Syria
Ancient Syria had been initially dominated by a number of indigenous Semitic
speaking peoples; the Canaanites, Amorites, and cities of Ebla and Ugarit
were prominent among these.
Prior to and during the Bronze Age Collapse, Syria became a battle ground
between the empires of the Hittites, Assyrians, Mitanni and Egyptians, and
the coastal regions came under attack from the Sea Peoples. From the 13th
Century BC, the Arameans came to prominence in Syria, and the region outside
of the Phoenician coastal areas eventually became Aramaic speaking.
Syrian sites previously showed evidence of trade links with Mesopotamia (
Assyria and Babylonia), Egypt and the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age.
Evidence at Ugarit shows that the destruction there occurred after the reign
of Merneptah (ruled 1213–1203 BC) and even the fall of Chancellor Bay (
died 1192 BC). The last Bronze Age king of the Semitic state of Ugarit,
Ammurapi, was a contemporary of the Hittite king Suppiluliuma II. The exact
dates of his reign are unknown. However, a letter by the king is preserved
on one of the clay tablets found baked in the conflagration of the
destruction of the city. Ammurapi stresses the seriousness of the crisis
faced by many Levantine states from invasion by the advancing Sea Peoples in
a dramatic response to a plea for assistance from the king of Alasiya.
Ammurapi highlights the desperate situation Ugarit faced in letter RS 18.147:
My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were
burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that
all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships
are in the Land of Lukka?...Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my
father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much
damage upon us.[10]
Unfortunately for Ugarit, no help arrived and Ugarit was burned to the
ground at the end of the Bronze Age. Its destruction levels contained Late
Helladic IIIB ware, but no LH IIIC (see Mycenaean period). Therefore, the
date of the destruction is important for the dating of the LH IIIC phase.
Since an Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah was found in
the destruction levels, 1190 BC was taken as the date for the beginning of
the LH IIIC. A cuneiform tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was
destroyed after the death of Merneptah. It is generally agreed that Ugarit
had already been destroyed by the 8th year of Ramesses III—i. e. 1178 BC.
These letters on clay tablets found baked in the conflagration of the
destruction of the city speak of attack from the sea, and a letter from
Alashiya (Cyprus) speaks of cities already being destroyed from attackers
who came by sea. It also speaks of the Ugarit fleet being absent, patrolling
the Lycian coast.
The West Semitic Arameans eventually superseded the earlier Amorites,
Canaanites and people of Ugarit, to whom they were ethno-linguistically
related. The Arameans came to dominate the region both politically and
militarily from the mid 11th century BC until the rise of the Neo Assyrian
Empire in the late 10th Century BC, after which the entire region fell to
Assyria. Sites in Syria showing evidence of the collapse are:-
Ugarit
Tell Sukas
Kadesh
Qatna
Hamath
Alalakh
Aleppo
Carchemish
Emar
Southern Levant
Egyptian evidence shows that, from the reign of Horemheb (ruled either 1319
or 1306 to 1292 BC), wandering Shasu were more problematic than the earlier
Apiru. Ramesses II (ruled 1279–1213 BC) campaigned against them, pursuing
them as far as Moab, where he established a fortress, after the near
collapse at the Battle of Kadesh. During the reign of Merneptah, the Shasu
threatened the "Way of Horus" north from Gaza. Evidence shows that Deir Alla
(Succoth) was destroyed after the reign of Queen Twosret (ruled 1191–1189
BC). The destroyed site of Lachish was briefly reoccupied by squatters and
an Egyptian garrison, during the reign of Ramesses III (ruled 1186–1155 BC)
. All centres along a coastal route from Gaza northward were destroyed, and
evidence shows Gaza, Ashdod, Ashkelon, Akko, and Jaffa were burned and not
reoccupied for up to thirty years. Inland Hazor, Bethel, Beit Shemesh, Eglon
, Debir, and other sites were destroyed. Refugees escaping the collapse of
coastal centres may have fused with incoming nomadic and Anatolian elements
to begin the growth of terraced hillside hamlets in the highlands region
that was associated with the later development of the Hebrews.[11] During
the reign of Rameses III Philistines were allowed to resettle the coastal
strip from Gaza to Joppa, Denyen (possibly the tribe of Dan in the Bible, or
more likely the people of Adana, also known as Danuna, part of the Hittite
Empire) settled from Joppa to Acre, and Tjekker in Acre. These sites quickly
achieved independence as the Tale of Wenamun shows. Sites in Southern
Levant showing evidence of the collapse are:-
Hazor
Akko
Megiddo
Deir ´Alla
Bethel
Beth Shemesh
Lachish
Ashod
Ashkelon
Greece
Main article: Greek Dark Ages
None of the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age survived (with the
possible exception of the Cyclopean fortifications on the Acropolis of
Athens) with destruction being heaviest at palaces and fortified sites. Up
to 90% of small sites in the Peloponnese were abandoned, suggesting a major
depopulation. The End Bronze Age collapse marked the start of what has been
called the Greek Dark Ages, which lasted for more than 400 years. Other
cities, like Athens, continued to be occupied, but with a more local sphere
of influence, limited evidence of trade and an impoverished culture, from
which it took centuries to recover. Sites in Greece showing evidence of the
collapse are:-
Teichos Dymaion
Pylos
Nichoria
The Menelaion
Tiryns
Mycenae
Thebes
Lefkandi
Iolkos[12]
Knossos
Kydonia |
